1.1. Current Status

For decades, comics have proven to be a powerful medium for storytelling. However, throughout the history of creative industries, women and their narratives have long been underrepresented, overlooked and marginalised (Robbins, 2013; Chenault, 2007), often accompanied by a tendency to objectivise and sexualise the female characters in the scene (Turberville, 2016), reflecting broader cultural tensions around gender, power, and agency, often constrained by corporate interests (Cocca, 2016). Although there has been some progress since the 1990s, with women creators driving innovation and diverse graphic storytelling in comics (Comic Book Legal Defense Fund, 2015), this shift remains limited, partly due to the persistence of individuals responsible for past inequities who still hold positions of influence within the industry (Cocca, 2020).

In contrast to classical Western and American comic book culture, South Korean webtoons¹ are breaking away from the traditional focus on male narratives. Female webtoon creators are winning prominence in the industry and influencing millions of users worldwide (Lee & Kyungran, 2018) while featuring female main characters and their narratives.

The Korean Wave, also known as Hallyu, refers to the meteoric rise of South Korean popular culture around the world. This phenomenon was driven by the export of South Korean television dramas (K-dramas) in the late 1990s and has evolved to encompass an array of cultural products, with the popularity of webtoons serving as a crucial driving force (Spherical Insights & Consulting, 2022). An international survey revealed that nearly 30% of 25,000 respondents reported that webtoons were very popular in their country (Jobst, 2022).

While webtoons have seen explosive growth in readership worldwide, their K-drama adaptations are increasing in number and gaining an even larger audience through streaming services (Kim, 2022). It is a fact that the manhwa comic industry in South Korea (as the manga in Japan) has historically offered a comparatively greater space for female authorship than traditional European and American comics. However, the current influence of webtoons across various media highlights a significant shift. When examining the most renowned streaming and webtoon platforms, a substantial number of webtoons and K-dramas are written, directed, or based on webtoons by female creators, in contrast to the predominantly male-dominated narratives worldwide (Chenault, 2007). This international and unique phenomenon underscores the need for further examination.

1.2. Feminism in South Korea

Two pivotal political events, the Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA) and the Global Alliance on Media and Gender (GAMAG), have had a significant impact on women in the media internationally. These events, which provide a platform for women to voice their experiences and concerns, are crucial in advancing gender equality. The BPfA, in particular, has played a pivotal role in promoting gender integration and creating a framework for gender equality policies (United Nations, 1995). It has helped women creators in South Korea by raising awareness of gender inequality and encouraging policymakers to implement gender-sensitive policies. Similarly, GAMAG has also been instrumental in promoting gender equality in the media, including the comic industry, by advocating for the representation and participation of women in decision-making processes (UNESCO, 2019).

In recent years, South Korea has witnessed a surge in feminist activism, with more women speaking out against gender inequality and demanding change, coinciding with the later Fourth Wave of Feminism² globally, led by young women and fueled by the internet and social media platforms (Yun, 2022). These activists have advocated for increased representation of women in politics and other leadership positions, as well as changes in the country’s legal system to better protect women’s rights. In line with this tendency, webtoons featuring women’s challenges and experiences are gaining popularity, highlighting women’s experiences within South Korean society.

On the other hand, there are various reactions to these webtoons, including negative vote campaigns to dismiss them and offensive anti-feminist comments (Ningsih, 2023 and Yoon, 2021) due to the current backlash against feminism that is going on globally and in South Korea. This backlash can be partly attributed to how conservative leaders have strategically distorted the feminist movement, using it to polarise voters and gain electoral advantages, leading to an intense “gender war” in South Korea (Khil, 2022). The current politicisation of gender issues and South Korea’s rapid social change may have amplified a widening political gap between young men and women, where women tend to vote for left-wing parties with a more feminist agenda, while young men vote for conservative parties and those opposed to feminism (Gong, 2024).

1.3. Objectives

The present paper aims to examine the impact of South Korean women webtoon creators on empowering female narratives through webtoons and their K-drama adaptations within the international comic and film streaming industries. To do so, it delves into the booming South Korean webtoon market, analysing its size, influence, and role in propelling Korean creators and their narratives onto the international scene through mobile apps and drama adaptations. Then, it analyses the graphical content and narratives of webtoons created by South Korean women and their drama adaptations, focusing on female representation and the potential of these narratives to claim – or not – diverse voices and innovative storytelling. Despite an extensive body of literature that explores the intersection of gender and comics, a significant gap remains in the study of the contributions of South Korean women’s webtoon creators.

3.1. Gender Perspective Framework

The theoretical framework of this analysis is rooted in gender perspective theories, providing a lens through which to understand the challenges and triumphs of women navigating creative fields, offering valuable insights into the broader socio-cultural context that shapes the experiences of female creators. In the comic industry, feminist theories have become particularly relevant.

Drawing on the works of influential feminist theorists such as Sandra Harding (2004) and Teresa de Lauretis (2007), this analysis seeks to examine its objectives by understanding the deep-seated gender inequalities that persist in the comic and film industries, as well as in South Korea. Harding’s standpoint theory emphasises the importance of considering the perspectives of marginalised groups to understand social structures, serving as a guide in understanding the challenges female creators face. This argument resonates with Teresa de Lauretis’s emphasis on examining gender through the lens of those who experience marginalisation, who discusses the need for feminist theory to continually challenge dominant paradigms and consider the intersections of class, race and gender in understanding gender dynamics (de Lauretis, 2007). By acknowledging the unique experiences of women within South Korean society and graphic media, this framework considers the systemic inequalities that persist there, such as lower salaries, limited career opportunities, workplace discrimination, and sexual harassment in the workplace (Bergstrom, 2004). Central to these notions is the concept of female otherness, the perception of women as distinct or separate from the societal norm within the context of male-dominated or patriarchal structures, leading to various forms of discrimination or gender-based biases; to disrupt these dominant narratives, it is helpful to redefine women’s creative works and provide a platform for diverse and empowering representations of women (de Lauretis, 2007).

Another key concept for this paper is the female gaze, a perspective that centres on women’s authentic experiences and challenges patriarchal visual conventions. Early feminist film theory framed it as a counterpoint to the male gaze, emphasising how women filmmakers reconstruct cinematic language to resist objectification (Kaplan, 1983). Contemporary interpretations further expand on it, arguing that the female gaze actively reshapes cultural narratives by reclaiming representation through bodily autonomy, allowing women to present their own experiences and identities authentically, fostering empathetic viewer engagement, and dissolving traditional subject-object hierarchies in storytelling (Soloway, 2016).

In the context of South Korea, as in most parts of the world, patriarchal structures have historically shaped this otherness around women, reinforcing stereotypes and limiting their agency. Butler’s theory of performativity (1990) argues that gender is not a fixed essence but a performance shaped by societal expectations and power dynamics. This framework provides valuable insights into how societal expectations have shaped and permeated the portrayal of female characters in webtoons, influencing the reception of women-authored content. By analysing how gender is performed within webtoons and dramas, the study gains a deeper understanding of the potential of these narratives to perpetuate and challenge existing classical gendered structures.

These key concepts serve as the theoretical foundation for examining how female otherness is either reinforced or challenged in South Korean webtoons created by women. This framework also examines the influence of the female gaze on these works, particularly in terms of the portrayal of female characters, the reception of women-authored content, and the negotiation of creative spaces within the webtoon and drama industries.

3.2. Methodology

This study combines qualitative content analysis of webtoons created by South Korean women and their K-drama adaptations with derived quantitative data from the observational analysis of the sample, along with secondary quantitative data gathered from media organisations, government reports, and statistical reports, to explore gender narratives in webtoons and their global impact. This approach is grounded in gender perspective theory, as among feminist researchers, combining qualitative and quantitative methods can be a powerful and effective way to conduct research; “they understand that quantitative methods can be an important supplement, and, when practised well, they have the ability to dismantle the master’s house” (Hesse-Biber & Griffin, 2015, p. X.).

The study applied two criteria to ensure a relevant webtoon selection for this analysis foundation: authored by female creators and with a female protagonist, guaranteeing a focus on the female perspective; also, each webtoon has a K-drama adaptation available on international streaming platforms, ensuring that the selected works have the potential for significant international influence. This selection of twenty-three webtoon series and their respective K-drama adaptations (between 16 and 26 episodes each) from 2016 to 2023 (series release dates) facilitated a cross-media comparison between the original webtoons and their adaptations, also to understand the increase in these webtoons’ audience reach.

During the exploratory search of Korean webtoons, the study considered three main criteria to ensure a relevant foundationary selection for analysis: authored by female creators (women or non-binary women), narrative led by a female protagonist character, guaranteeing a focus on female and diverse perspectives; and each webtoon has an adaptation to a K-drama available on big international streaming platforms (like Netflix, Disney+ and Viki) to guarantee that the selected works have the potential for significant international influence.

After a preliminary examination of the material, the webtoons and drama adaptation showed the common thread: exploring social and gender issues that reflect the everyday experiences of women. This observation informed the subsequent thematic analysis of the content, aiming to unveil recurring gendered patterns. The analysis examined the graphic-conceptual discourses, gender symbolism, and metaphors, as well as the visual storytelling used by the creators to convey their perspectives. The thematic categories for the content analysis derived from both the recurring themes identified in webtoons and gender theory’s emphasis on structural inequities and feminist media studies focus: Societal pressures, Complex Relationships, Challenging Traditional Gender Roles, Gender Equality in the Workplace, Challenging Beauty Standards, Sexual Harassment, Personal Women’s Empowerment and Mental Health.

These categories enabled a focused and targeted examination of gender representation and its connection to societal issues. Each category was graded with 1 out of 2 if the theme was present and 2 if it was essential to the storyline. As part of the process and to understand the international influence of these female webtoon artists, the study considers details of the streaming services that broadcast each K-drama adaptation.

This study also analysed IMDb ratings for all South Korean K-dramas produced from 2015 to 2025 (N = 343), with a specific focus on the 50 adaptations derived from webtoons. A threshold of a 7/10 or higher rating was established to identify levels of audience engagement.

During the analysis, determining the gender of webtoon creators has posed challenges due to the limited available information and the use of pseudonyms or initials to preserve anonymity. While this lack of transparency can offer protection against gender bias in a male-dominated industry, it can also impede recognition and opportunities for these female webtoon artists. To determine the gender of the webtoon authors in this paper, research was conducted using online databases and social media to verify the data.

For those interested in accessing some of the raw data used in this study, it is available in the provided link: [Data Link]. This repository serves as a resource for further exploration and scrutiny of the findings presented in this academic endeavour.

4.1. Size and Influence of South Korea’s Webtoon Market

The webtoon market in South Korea has experienced rapid growth in recent years, becoming a global platform for Korean comic artists to showcase their work. With millions of readers worldwide, webtoons are one of the fastest-growing sectors of the Korean content industry, with a global revenue of over $4.7 billion in 2021 and projected to reach $60.10 billion by 2030 (Spherical Insights & Consulting, 2022). According to data from the Korea Creative Content Agency (KOCCA, 2021), the webtoon industry in South Korea reached a market size of 511 billion won (approximately $ 429 million) in 2020, representing a 30% increase from 2019. Webtoons are exclusively online comics that are regularly updated and easily accessed through mobile applications, enabling them to connect with a global audience and become a representative genre of Korean digital culture consumed transnationally, thanks to the expansion of digital networks worldwide.

The most popular webtoon service in South Korea is Naver Webtoon, followed by Kakao Corporation’s Kakao Page and Daum Webtoon platforms. These services compete for market leadership not only in South Korea but also in other international markets. In addition to reading, webtoons have expanded into other formats, including merchandise production, television series, animations, movies, and mobile games. Netflix has also recognised the popularity of webtoons, securing broadcasting rights for several series for an international audience and increasing its investment in Korean content production (Jobst, 2022).

The popularity of Korean webtoons in the Japanese market suggests that these products have great potential abroad. Additionally, the recent merger of Kakao Page and Kakao M to form Kakao Entertainment has led to greater collaboration between the webtoon and K-drama industries. Overall, Korean webtoons are emerging as a powerful source of content for the entertainment industry, particularly for K-drama production, which could further drive growth in the South Korean entertainment sector (Kim & Lim, 2021).

4.2. From the Webtoon to the Screen

The adaptation of webtoons into K-dramas has further propelled the global popularity of Korean culture, successfully engaging the international audience by incorporating global social issues such as mental health, gender equality, and LGBTQ+ rights. Many webtoons have successfully adapted into dramas by streaming companies like Netflix and Viki, with popular examples like the webtoon and drama What’s Wrong with Secretary Kim? (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

Transmedia adaptation: comparative still from What’s Wrong with Secretary Kim? webtoon (Jung Kyung-yoon, 2015) and tvN K-drama adaptation (2018). © Jung Kyung-yoon / KakaoPage / tvN, 2015–2018.

In 2022, the global video streaming market size was USD 89.03 billion and is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 21.5% between 2023 and 2030. The Asia Pacific region is the fastest-growing market for video streaming, with South Korea being a significant contributor to this growth (Grand View Research, 2022). The influence of streaming companies on the popularity of webtoon-based dramas is also reflected in audience statistics. In 2022, a survey conducted in 26 countries found that around 36% of respondents claimed that Korean dramas were popular in their countries. Before the international breakout of the 2021 survival series Squid Game, K-dramas were already experiencing increased international interest. This popularity has notably affected entertainment exports, with K-drama exports increasing by over 72% in recent years (Statista, 2023). According to Seungyun Ro, head of the intellectual property business team at Naver WEBTOON, there is significant interest in webtoons from online streaming services; around 30 of Naver’s webtoons were adapted into K-dramas between 2020 and 2022, and this number is expected to continue growing (Kim, 2022).

The following IMDb dataset extracted for this analysis (see Chart 1) suggests that webtoon adaptations achieve success in K-drama production. Representing 14.6% (50 of 343 dramas), these adaptations constitute 17.5% of high-quality productions (41 of 234 dramas rated 7/10 or higher), reflecting a 20% greater likelihood of attaining top ratings compared to non-adapted content. Their 82% success rate (41/50) and stability in audience reception suggest that webtoon-derived stories maintain their audience appeal when adapted, likely benefiting from pre-existing fandom and proven narrative frameworks. This trend could indicate webtoons as a reliable source of IP material.

4.3. Gender Disparities in Webtoon and K-Drama Industries

Surprisingly, several reports indicate that there is no significant gender gap in female representation in K-dramas and webtoons. A 2021 survey among webtoon artists found that approximately 66.5% of the surveyed artists were women (Jobst, 2022). Additionally, data provided by the South Korean national television channel KBS reveals that over 53% of the main characters in network dramas in 2021 were women, with the figure standing at around 40% on other networks between 2017 and 2020 (Yoon, 2023).

Despite this growing representation of women in K-dramas and webtoons, gender equality in South Korea still lags behind. According to the Global Gender Gap Report (World Economic Forum, 2023), South Korea ranked 105th out of 146 countries, indicating that gender parity remains inadequate; women in South Korea earn 31.1% less than men, representing the most significant gender pay gap among all OECD countries (OECD, 2022). In addition, women face barriers in the workplace due to discrimination, outdated gender stereotypes, and sexual harassment.

In the South Korean film industry, women also face inequalities and discrimination, as in the rest of the world. Yim Soon-rye, a leader in the fight for gender equality in the Korean film industry, pointed out in an interview that most Korean films are financed, made, and starred by men in stories geared toward a male audience, creating a vicious circle in the content and production of films. She also highlights that although the female ratio in film schools is 50–50, only 30% become short film directors, and 12% become feature film directors (Noh, 2018).

4.4. Audience Demographics: Gender Among Consumers

Women-led webtoons have garnered a substantial following among women, with female creators at the forefront of the industry. Since 2021, the WEBTOON app has had over 72 million monthly active users, with 58% of them being women; Generation Z and young millennials comprise 75% of their worldwide user base (Salkowitz, 2021). On the other hand, 62% of K-drama viewers were women, while 38% were men, with viewers aged 25 to 34 being 32% of the audience (KOCCA, 2021).

4.5. Data Analysis

The rising success of webtoon adaptations is evident in their widespread popularity, with webtoon-based dramas consistently ranking at the top of streaming platform lists, underscoring their significant impact on the entertainment industry and their potential to attract a global audience. Notably, it is essential to highlight that over half of webtoon artists are female. Given the intense interest of streaming services in adapting webtoons into K-dramas, coupled with the global appeal of both mediums, there exists a significant opportunity for South Korean female webtoon creators to reach a vast international audience with their narratives.

This shift towards a more gender-balanced industry in webtoons may be attributed to the democratisation of the medium facilitated by digital platforms. Webtoons empowers artists to share their work online without relying on traditional gatekeepers, such as editors, distributors, and publishers. This platform provides artists, regardless of gender, with an opportunity to showcase their talents and reach a broader audience.

In the K-dramas media, the heightened equality in character representation may respond to the expanding female audience, which is clamouring for more diverse narratives and representation on screen.

The convergence of these factors suggests a unique phenomenon that facilitates the global promotion of the voices of South Korean female creators in two industries where female narratives have historically been marginalised and not aligned with mainstream commercial perspectives.

5.1. Gendered Narratives in Webtoons

Although quantitative data provides valuable insights into market trends and industry aspects, the following content analysis is crucial for understanding the gendered and social narratives within the selected webtoons. Interestingly, initial observations showed a similar pattern across the works. All narratives typically portray romantic and friendship relationships as the core of the storyline. However, they also explore gender and social issues that women face, often portraying tridimensional characters and storylines. This highlights the importance of the female gaze in storytelling by neutralising the traditional and flat portrayals of women and their experiences.

All these themes are significantly related to the gender disparities in South Korean society; despite achieving near parity in educational attainment and health, South Korea, as shown before, faces a significant gender gap in work payment, with traditional gender roles playing a key factor. These deeply rooted traditional roles assign men the responsibility for family provision and expect women to prioritise childcare over their careers, which is reflected directly in occupational segregation (So, 2023).

Figure 2 provides data about the thematic content analysis. The emphasis on complex relationships (23.9%) aligns with the stereotypical romance storytelling approaches but also suggests an aim to explore human connections and sentiments. When combined with societal pressures, present in 21.9%, it adds layers of gendered connotations to the relationship narratives. In all these narratives, relationship storylines are heavily influenced by societal expectations that challenge the women characters, introducing plot devices like pressure to marry, social class dynamics, prioritising family over career, and limited career opportunities, which often result in feelings of societal stigma and isolation.

Figure 2

Comparative thematic analysis: gender and social issues in Korean women-created webtoons and their drama adaptations. Visualisation created from observational analysis data. © Dácil Roca Vera, 2024

The narrative of Lee Naeun and Han Kyoung Chal’s Our Beloved Summer (2021) utilises the popular theme of the first-love reunion to discuss gender expectations. The female protagonist, Kook Yeon-soo, is an ambitious, hardhearted, and career-centred woman, and Choi Ung, the male character, is presented as a sensitive artist and slacker. As Yeon grapples with the emotional toll of her ambition and Ung confronts insecurities about his artistic path, the narrative challenges societal pressures in South Korea that prioritise domesticity for women and financial success for men, exploring communication struggles beyond gender binarism and dismantling stereotypes of manly emotional stoicism and oversensitive femininity. The creators utilise the characters’ growth and evolving relationship to offer a vision that transcends beyond constructed gender limitations.

In this light, webtoon creators often write women protagonists who embark on journeys of self-discovery and empowerment (14.2%), showing the transformative power of individual agency. The stories usually showcase protagonists who defy conventional expectations and challenge traditional gender roles (13.5% in the data). Bae Hye Soo’s creation, Mystic Pop-Up Bar (2020), presents an intriguing view of gendered expectations and emotional labour. The main female protagonist’s characterisation as a powerful yet emotionally distant and edgy shaman subverts the traditionally feminine, nurturing, and delicate role. The male protagonist’s empathetic and sweet nature, often associated with femininity, challenges the typical portrayal of the stoic, masculine hero. Each episode portrays their clients’ specific regrets, addressing most of the gendered themes from the thematic content. Overall, female clients contend with societal pressures that prioritise duty over desire, while male characters struggle with the repercussions of prioritising work over relationships, reflecting ingrained societal expectations.

Similarly, I Don’t Feel Like Doing Anything, by Joo Young-Hyun (2019), and its adaptation Summer Strike (2022), follow the journey of Lee Yeo-Reum, a young woman who embarks on a powerful journey of self-discovery. Driven by burnout and the suffocating pressures of a toxic workplace, including bullying and sexual harassment from her boss, she realises that her life has become a monotonous cycle without purpose. Making a bold choice, she leaves behind the façade of a perfect life and rebels against the capitalist work-life dynamics and societal expectations, embarking on a new path to self-empowerment (see Figure 3). As she settles into a small seaside village and connects with its inhabitants, she confronts her own anxieties and challenges women face, such as sexism and pressure to conform.

Figure 3

Protagonist’s journey of self-discovery in I Don’t Feel Like Doing Anything, panel from Joo Young-hyun’s webtoon (2019). © Joo Young-hyun / Naver Webtoon, 2019.

The prominence of storylines that discuss women’s empowerment and challenge traditional gender roles reflects the growing awareness of gender equality in Korean society, which aligns with a broader global discourse on women’s rights. In the narratives that explicitly address gender equality in the workplace (10.3%), these fictional characters show women’s agency in navigating real gender disparities. This desire to represent women’s active attempts to confront persisting work inequalities (like salary differences, sexual harassment, and limited lead opportunities) reflects South Korean women’s efforts to claim a bigger and safer space within the professional sphere; even when broader structural and political progressive changes have lagged or worsened (Delhaye, 2023).

Hae Hwa’s original story, Business Proposal (2022), explores other gender issues through humour and friendship, including class dynamics and female sorority. Her protagonist embodies the young working class, while her best friend is a wealthy heiress; together, they support each other in overcoming the different class limitations and challenges they face. The storytelling touches on harsh realities such as sexual harassment, including a spy camera incident, a prevalent issue in Korea. This event further strengthens their bond and shows criticism and discontent with current Korean laws that overlook women’s safety. Conversely, the power imbalance between the protagonist and the male lead exemplifies the challenges women face in the workplace and relationships. This humorous and romantic webtoon tackles female friendship empowerment and connection with relatability, while also addressing severe social issues.

Other themes that appeared recurrent are related to mental health (7.1%) and sexual harassment (6.5%). These themes are pivotal in the storylines when they appear, suggesting the creators’ intent to address gender-sensitive and real-world issues within fiction. Sexual harassment of women is a prevalent issue in South Korea, as in most parts of the world. The #MeToo movement brought attention to it, improving reporting, attempting to foster legislative changes, and highlighting negative societal attitudes (Dilip, 2022). By incorporating these narratives, the creators draw attention to their prevalence, which in turn influences advocacy for empathy, understanding, and societal change.

Lee Ra-ha’s webtoon and its K-drama adaptation, Daily Dose of Sunshine (2023), present a story centred on mental health and societal pressures through a relatable female protagonist. Jung Da-Eun, a nurse transferred to the psychiatric ward, embodies the challenges women face in balancing career aspirations with mental health problems. The drama portrays her journey with sensitivity and empathy as she navigates her own emotional and mental struggles alongside those of her patients. It deeply shows the complexities of her depression, going beyond simplistic portrayals, and the specific challenges of being a woman with this illness, offering a window into the experiences of individuals wrestling with mental illness. Furthermore, the drama delves into Da-Eun’s complex relationships, showcasing the challenges and rewards of human connection within the context of mental health, and invites the audience to foster a deeper understanding of these matters.

Llama’s work Tomorrow (2022) offers a unique and sensitive perspective on death and suicide, tackling diverse gender issues through its powerful female lead. As a grim reaper tasked with guiding lost souls contemplating suicide, she encounters individuals grappling with mental health problems. Her dark and strong but also empathetic character embodies a subversion of traditional gender roles and challenges the stereotypical portrayal of the stoic male hero. This work highlights the struggles women face, including societal pressures to conform to beauty standards, workplace discrimination, and the burden of caregiving, alongside the challenges men typically face, such as the pressure to succeed financially and the limited emotional expression.

Interestingly, challenging beauty standards (2.6%) emerged as a theme, but it is the least prevalent. This finding is in line with the pervasive preoccupation with superficial beauty in South Korea. South Korean women are subjected to intense pressure to conform to specific and very narrow beauty standards; while most women worldwide face this issue, South Koreans experience negative body image and health problems more acutely due to the intensity of this pressure. This pressure stems from a confluence of sociocultural factors, including media portrayals, societal emphasis on beauty standards for career and marriage success, and widespread acceptance of plastic surgery (Lin & Raval, 2020). The low prevalence of this theme suggests an enduring societal emphasis on conventional beauty standards, implying a limited space for narratives that actively challenge them. Alternatively, it could indicate the market’s reticence to address this sensitive topic, which is attributable to South Korean industry constraints.

True Beauty (2020) by Yaongyi explores this theme through its female protagonist, who uses makeup to transform her appearance to achieve social acceptance. The focus on beauty standards is a critique, but the narrative sometimes prioritises conforming to those standards for validation, reflecting the ongoing obsession with beauty in Korea. Nonetheless, this story explores themes of self-acceptance and finding confidence beyond physical appearance, potentially empowering viewers to challenge societal beauty standards, irrespective of the difficulty of deconstructing them entirely. While some elements in these stories might reinforce traditional gender roles, they offer a unique and innovative voice, suggesting the creators’ own struggles to navigate South Korean societal expectations and gender bias and present these issues not in a bidimensional manner, as black and white, but with a three-dimensional perspective.

5.2. Transformation of Gender Narratives from Webtoon to K-drama

The adaptation of webtoons into K-dramas presents a negotiation between artistic fidelity and commercial appeal, often involving significant plot and character changes, suggesting patterns regarding gender perspective. One prominent trend is the romanticisation and dilution of the female character’s journey, where complex struggles are repackaged as romantic arcs, thereby diminishing their subversive potential. For instance, True Beauty (2020) transitions from the webtoon’s critique of beauty standards, framing the protagonist’s reliance on makeup as a tragic coping mechanism, to a K-drama that ultimately rewards her conformity through romantic validation. Similarly, Nevertheless (2021) exemplifies this pattern: the webtoon’s frank exploration of casual relationships and female desire is sanitised in the adaptation, which recenters the narrative on emotional melodrama rather than sexual agency. The same occurs in The Girl Downstairs (Doona!, 2023), where the webtoon’s nuanced portrayal of a former idol’s mental health struggles and reclaiming of autonomy is simplified into a conventional romantic plot, erasing much of the original’s feminist introspection.

These K-drama adaptations often reinforced gendered stereotypes, particularly through visual representation and character design. Mystic Pop-Up Bar (2020) exemplifies this: the webtoon’s unconventional art style and androgynous portrayal of the female protagonist shaman, a deliberate rejection of hypersexualised femininity, are replaced in the K-drama by a glamorised and normative actress, aligning with marketable K-beauty standards (see Figure 4).

Figure 4

Transmedia adaptation comparison: promotional poster for the JTBC K-drama Mystic Pop-up Bar (left) and panel from the webtoon Mystic Pop-up Bar by Bae Hye-soo (right). © JTBC; Bae Hye-soo; Daum Webtoon, 2019–2020.

Moreover, adaptations often individualise systemic critiques, depoliticising the webtoons’ structural analyses of gender inequality or social issues. Summer Strike (2022) exemplifies this: where the webtoon frames the protagonist’s burnout as a direct consequence of workplace misogyny and harassment, the K-drama recasts her journey more as a personal healing process, divorcing it from systemic critique. The same occurs in Tomorrow (2022); the webtoon links male suicides to oppressive provider masculinity, while the drama often reduces these cases to individualised tragedies, stripping them of political resonance.

This dilution of female agency in female characters is often seen in all adaptations, with frequent recentering of male perspectives or softening of critiques of patriarchal structures. In Cheese in the Trap (2016), the webtoon’s layered depiction of the female protagonist’s psychological battles against societal expectations is overshadowed in the K-drama by the male lead’s romantic redemption, reframing her agency as secondary to his growth. Soonkki, the creator behind this webtoon, was reportedly unhappy with the drama’s changes, especially regarding the male lead’s characterisation (Jung, 2016). The drama’s ending was significantly altered, causing controversy among fans.

Conversely, when webtoon creators are directly involved in the K-drama adaptation, the representation tends to be more accurate, and their original vision is better preserved. Our Beloved Summer (2021) is an example where the original creators, Lee Naeun and Han Kyoung Chal, ensured that the drama retained the webtoon’s nuanced portrayal of relationships, avoiding the clichéd gender roles often seen in romantic K-dramas. Similarly, in Daily Dose of Sunshine (2023), based on the webtoon by Lee Ra-ha, some storylines were expanded, but the original’s emotional core was maintained. She was involved in the drama’s development, contributing to its authentic and sensitive portrayal of mental health.

Collectively, these patterns show how the K-drama adaptation process mediates, often stereotyping and diluting female agency in female representation. Even though the gender perspective is frequently compromised in translation to screen, when a woman directs a K-drama, the female agency is often reinforced. An example of this is Little Women (2022) by Kim Hee-Won. This successful Netflix adaptation reinterprets Louisa May Alcott’s novel in contemporary South Korea, mirroring the equally current importance of sisterhood in female empowerment in a perpetual patriarchal society through a thriller in modern Korea. In the same direction, The Good Bad Mother (2023), directed by Shim Na-Yeon, explores the complexities of tridimensional female experiences, challenging conventional notions of motherhood, such as the pressure to conform, the sacrifice of personal aspirations, and the stigmatisation of mothers who deviate from traditional norms. Shim Na-yeon’s direction portrays multidimensional female characters, emphasising their strengths, vulnerabilities, and internal conflicts.

5.3. Trends in Gender Narratives of Webtoons (2016–2023)

The concept of female otherness in the creative industries responds to the long-standing marginalisation of women’s narratives, hindering the representation of diverse identities and experiences. However, a growing force led by female creators is producing innovative stories that give voice to previously underrepresented experiences and sentiments. In this case study, the international popularity of South Korean women’s webtoons suggests a broader cultural shift in which the value and importance of diverse narratives are gaining prominence in the industry and among the audience.

When analysing the extracted data from the sample observation by year to identify trends (2016–2023), the results suggests two key points: a rise in the number of dramas adapted from webtoons created by women each year, and a growing exploration of gender issues in the stories crafted by women creators in webtoons, year on year (see Figure 5). The increasing number of K-dramas adapted from webtoons created by women suggests a growing demand for female-driven narratives and a deliberate exploration of gender issues that challenge South Korea’s societal norms. Over time, these K-drama adaptations have shifted from reinforcing traditional gender roles to presenting more complex, authentic portrayals of women’s experiences.

Figure 5

Parallel trends in women-authored narratives from webtoons: gender-themed content (upper line) vs annual adaptation counts (lower line), 2016–2023. Visualisation created from dataset of webtoon-to-drama adaptations. © Dácil Roca Vera, 2014.

Early examples, such as What’s Wrong with Secretary Kim (2018) and True Beauty (2020), balanced professional female leads with conventional romantic tropes. While these stories acknowledged gender pressures, they often stopped short of subversion. More recent adaptations demonstrate sharper critiques. Summer Strike (2022) portrays a woman’s rejection of workplace exploitation as empowerment, while Tomorrow (2022) employs fantasy to explore systemic, gendered trauma. Daily Dose of Sunshine (2023) and Donna! (2023) further explores mental and health struggles like depression, eating disorders and marginalisation without resorting to stereotypical resolutions.

All in all, the analysis highlights the deliberate choices made by women creators in exploring endurance and confrontation with South Korean societal norms. These themes, explored in the South Korean context, are relevant and current for women internationally; their market success suggests an appeal to a global audience and transcends geographical and cultural boundaries. With the availability of these captivating stories on popular media platforms such as Netflix, Disney+, Amazon Prime, Hulu, and Viki, their scope has expanded to allow international viewers to connect with them.

6.1. Limitations and Future Research

The study’s findings are based on a qualitative analysis limited to 23 webtoons and their drama adaptations from the past decade, supported by limited quantitative data gathered from external, feasible sources and derived from these observations. This sample offers valuable insights as a starting point for further investigation. Future research could expand the dataset and sample chronologically to provide a deeper examination of narrative and representation evolution, and incorporate more data analysis into audience engagement metrics.